In this regard, whereas the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire focuses specifically on repetitive thought independent of content, the cognitive control over emotions component of the CCFQ assesses, more broadly, the ability to exhibit control over (primarily negative) thoughts and emotions. Neuropsychologia 27, 1329–1343. The present research examined how cognitive control and cognitive flexibility might be expressed in stressful situations and the processes through which reductions in these abilities might be linked to elevated depressive symptoms. Neuroscience 345, 243–255. The nine cognitive emotion regulation strategies are measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, with scores being obtained by calculating the mean scores belonging to a particular subscale. Neurosci. Natl. 1, 293–319. Rev. The concepts of cognitive control and of cognitive flexibility have been difficult to define (Morton et al., 2011; Ionescu, 2012; Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Hutchison and Morton, 2016), particularly as their definitions overlap and the same behavioral tasks have been used to assess both abilities (Gläscher et al., 2012; Díaz-Blancat et al., 2018). Biochem. Rev. Conscious. In addition to the preliminary version of the CCFQ, participants completed several validation measures, comprising the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory, Coping Flexibility Questionnaire, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Ruminative Response Scale, and Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire and their relations to current depressive symptoms. doi: 10.1007/s00221-011-2943-1, Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., and Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Res. Res. In particular, greater scores on the appraisal and coping flexibility dimension represent a tendency to approach stressful situations from multiple perspectives prior to responding, manage negative thoughts and emotions by reframing or reappraising stressful situations, and generate multiple and alternative coping strategies prior to selecting the appropriate response. Some features of the site may not work correctly. Trends Cogn. As assessed by this dimension of the CCFQ, individuals who perceive having greater cognitive control over emotion more readily shift their attention away from negative cognitive and emotional states, allowing them to focus their efforts on directly resolving a stressful situation. Since stressful experiences often elicit negative emotions, emphasis was placed on how cognitive control and flexibility might be manifested in emotional regulation. The Executive Skills Questionnaire (ESQ) is a questionnaire designed to rate your executive skills. None of the participants reported a current physical illness/condition, nor were any of the participants taking anti-anxiety or antidepressant medications. Both components of the CCFQ were similarly associated with the cognitive reappraisal, but not the expressive suppression subscales of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. The Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) is a brief self-report measure of the type of cognitive flexibility (CF) necessary to successfully challenge and restructure maladaptive beliefs with more balanced and adaptive thinking; it is particularly popular for use with English speakers. Participants in the community sample comprised 302 (n = 253 females, 49 males) individuals living in Canada with a mean age of 32.83 (SD = 10.36 years). Moreover, although the alternatives subscale more closely resembles the construct of cognitive flexibility, it was not predictive of cognitive restructuring outcome measures (Johnco et al., 2014). (2000). The fundamental factor in the expression of these abilities is highly dependent on context, including the characteristics and demands of the situation. Cogn. Behav. doi: 10.1080/10463281003765323, Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., and Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Perspect. However, such paradigms might provide a narrow perspective of how cognitive control and flexibility might be displayed in stressful experiences, and how reductions of these abilities are manifested in behavioral disturbances. Thereafter, participants engaged in an arithmetic task for 5 min. Further saliva samples were collected at 5, 15, and 30 min following the stressor or control tasks. TABLE 7. This, in turn, might lead to greater difficulty engaging in flexible behaviors, resulting in more automatic or reflexive responses and difficulties in regulating emotions. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows (SPSS Science, Chicago, IL, United States). 21, 55–89. Furthermore, diminished cognitive control over emotion was linked to elevated and prolonged cortisol reactivity following an acute challenge, a neuroendocrine profile that has been associated with depressive illness (Juruena et al., 2017). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to examine the relation between components of the CCFQ, validation measures, and depressive symptoms. Cognitive control and (cognitive) flexibility play an important role in an individual’s ability to adapt to continuously changing environments. J. Cogn. Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. It is not entirely clear why the cognitive control over emotion, but not the appraisal and coping flexibility component of the CCFQ, uniquely moderated the cortisol response to the TSST. Low appraisal and coping flexibility, by contrast, reflects a tendency to respond too readily or automatically, resulting in more reactive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses. Based on previous use of the SCOPE (Matheson and Anisman, 2003) and a principal component analysis, three broad clusters of coping were examined: Problem-focused coping, comprising problem-solving, cognitive restructuring, active distraction, humor, and social support seeking (α = 0.85); emotion-focused coping, including rumination, emotional expression, emotional containment, other-blame, and self-blame (α = 0.88); and avoidant coping comprising avoidance, wishful thinking, and passive resignation (α = 0.74). Cognitive control and brain resources in major depression: an fMRI study using the n-back task. 216, 397–408. Participants were told that they would engage in a public speaking task (about applying for a research assistantship), and given 5 min to prepare, after which they made their presentation in front of a panel of graduate student judges. Partial correlations were also used to assess the strength of relation between components of the CCFQ and depressive symptoms, after controlling each validation measure. TABLE 8. In the community sample, the item ‘I can remain in control of my thoughts and emotions’ loaded more strongly on the appraisal and coping flexibility component of the CCFQ. 29, 14–24. Conversely, the appraisal process might occur more slowly and deliberately, whereby the individual approaches the situation from multiple perspectives or contemplates several possible explanations before responding (Lazarus, 1999). Reduced cognitive control and flexibility was associated with greater negative appraisals of stressful situations, which, in turn, was tied to more severe depressive symptoms (Study 2). The editor and reviewers' affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. (2010). doi: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.11.001. Following from this perspective, forming negative appraisals (e.g., interpreting a situation as threatening or uncontrollable) might not necessarily be counterproductive. Cogn. The Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. Principal components analyses (PCA) with Promax rotation were used to explore the factor structure of the CCFQ in a student and community sample. Moderating effect of cognitive control over emotion in the relation between stressor condition and negative affect. Précis of “The Brain and Emotion”. Modification indices suggested that including four correlations between the residual/error variances of several items would improve model fit. Moderating variables: Psychoneuroendocrinology 28, 916–931. Multiple mediations analyses examining the direct and indirect effects of CCFQ subscale scores on depressive symptoms through stressor appraisals and coping style. 9:2219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02219. Results: The research is a correlational descriptive study. Neuropsychologia 46, 224–232. Pers. The relation between lower CCFQ scores and heightened depressive symptoms was also partially accounted for by less frequent engagement in problem-focused coping and more use of emotion-focused methods. Executive function skills are the mental processes that enable us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, juggle multiple tasks successfully, and self-regulate.. Psychol. U.S.A. 106, 912–917. doi: 10.1080/10253890310001594487, McEwen, B. S. (2003). Pharmacol. Together, these preliminary factor analyses and reliability assessments suggest that the CCFQ exhibits a stable two-factor structure in a student and community sample. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02219/full#supplementary-material, Abdollahi, A., Hosseinian, S., and Asmundson, G. J. Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Neuroscience 345, 193–202. 71, 437–451. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. For instance, (fluid) intelligence as well as creativity and divergent thinking have been suggested to be expressions of cognitive control and of cognitive flexibility (Colzato et al., 2006; Chermahini and Hommel, 2010; Nijstad et al., 2010; Benedek et al., 2012; Ferguson et al., 2017). For example, T1 represents the length of time between the collection of cortisol sample 1 (Cort1) and sample 2 (Cort2). doi: 10.1037/a0028727, Stemme, A., Deco, G., and Busch, A. Dev. (2003). J. Behav. Kline, R. B. questionnaire, please contact the Washington Group secretariat. Rev. Indeed, including the four residual correlations improved model fit, Δχ2(4) = 100.795, p < 0.001. Rev. The dual pathway to creativity model: creative ideation as a function of flexibility and persistence. Thus, further exploration into how cognitive control and flexibility might be apparent in these contexts might be important, especially in understanding how reductions in these abilities might favor mental health disturbances. In addition to their characterization as aspects of executive functions, various behaviors are believed to represent cognitive control and flexibility or, at least, be associated with these constructs. Stress and depression. To evaluate construct validity, a comparison was made between the final (18-item) version of the CCFQ and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (Dennis and Vander Wal, 2010). 123, 45–54. Accordingly, it follows that when confronted with an acute stressor, individuals with lower levels of cognitive control/flexibility would appraise the challenge as more stressful and display more negative affect following the experience. Multiple mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS v3.0 add-on to SPSS provided by Hayes (2017). New York, NY: Guilford Press. However, it was suggested that the control subscale might measure self-efficacy rather than cognitive flexibility (Johnco et al., 2014). It’s the Thought That Counts: The Role of Intentions and Meta-Awareness in Cognitive Therapy, Impaired Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in first-episode severe depression. This model provided a poor fit to the data, χ2 (126) = 456.990, p < 0.0001, CFI = 0.875, and RMSEA = 0.084. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.005, Koster, E. H., Hoorelbeke, K., Onraedt, T., Owens, M., and Derakshan, N. (2017). Partial correlations determined the strength of relationship between components of the CCFQ and validation measures, after controlling the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. The minimum detectable level of cortisol was 0.02 μg/dl and the specificity was 100%. Scores for each subscale were computed by summing all relevant items. 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